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"Sloven?ina" redirects here. For the South Slavic language spoken in Slovenia, see Slovene language.

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Slovak
sloven?ina, slovensky jazyk
Pronunciation	[?sl??ent?ina], [?sl??enski? ?jazik] ?
Native to	Slovakia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Carpathian Ruthenia, Slavonia, and Vojvodina
Ethnicity	Slovaks, Pannonian Rusyns
Speakers	L1: 5 million (2012–2021) L2: 2.1 million (2012)
Language family	Indo-European Balto-Slavic Slavic West Slavic Czech–Slovak Slovak
Dialects	Western Slovak Central Slovak Eastern Slovak (including Pannonian Rusyn)
Writing system	Latin (Slovak alphabet) Slovak Braille Cyrillic (Pannonian Rusyn alphabet)
Official status
Official language in	Slovakia European Union Vojvodina (Serbia)
Recognised minority language in	Czech Republic Poland Hungary Croatia Austria Romania Montenegro
Regulated by	Ministry of Culture of the Slovak Republic
Language codes
ISO 639-1	sk
ISO 639-2	slo (B) slk (T)
ISO 639-3	slk
Glottolog	slov1269
Linguasphere	53-AAA-db < 53-AAA-b...–d (varieties: 53-AAA-dba to 53-AAA-dbs)
The Slovak-speaking world:   regions where Slovak is the language of the majority   regions where Slovak is the language of a significant minority

Slovak (/?slo?v?k, -vɑ?k/ SLOH-va(h)k; endonym: sloven?ina [?sl??ent??ina] or slovensky jazyk [?sl??enski? ?jazik] ^?), is a West Slavic language of the Czech–Slovak group, written in Latin script. It is part of the Indo-European language family, and is one of the Slavic languages, which are part of the larger Balto-Slavic branch. Spoken by approximately 5 million people as a native language, primarily ethnic Slovaks, it serves as the official language of Slovakia and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union.

Slovak is closely related to Czech, to the point of very high mutual intelligibility, as well as to Polish. Like other Slavic languages, Slovak is a fusional language with a complex system of morphology and relatively flexible word order. Its vocabulary has been extensively influenced by Latin and German, as well as other Slavic languages.

History

Main article: History of the Slovak language

The Czech–Slovak group developed within West Slavic in the high medieval period, and the standardization of Czech and Slovak within the Czech–Slovak dialect continuum emerged in the early modern period. In the later mid-19th century, the modern Slovak alphabet and written standard became codified by ?udovít ?túr and reformed by Martin Hattala. The Moravian dialects spoken in the western part of the country along the border with the Czech Republic are also sometimes classified as Slovak, although some of their western variants are closer to Czech; they nonetheless form the bridge dialects between the two languages.

Geographic distribution and status

Slovak language is primarily spoken in Slovakia. The country's constitution declared it the official language of the state (?tátny jazyk):

(1) Na území Slovenskej republiky je ?tátnym jazykom slovensky jazyk. (2) Pou?ívanie inych jazykov ne? ?tátneho jazyka v úradnom styku ustanoví zákon.

(1) The Slovak language is the official language on the territory of the Slovak Republic. (2) The use of languages other than the official language in official communication shall be laid down by law.

Constitution of Slovakia, Article 6.

Beside that, national minorities and ethnic groups also have explicit permission to use their distinct languages. Slovakia is a country with established Language policy concerning its official language.

Regulation

Standard Slovak (spisovná sloven?ina) is defined by an Act of Parliament on the State Language of the Slovak Republic (language law). According to this law, the Ministry of Culture approves and publishes the codified form of Slovak based on the judgment of specialised Slovak linguistic institutes and specialists in the area of the state language. This is traditionally the ?udovít ?túr Institute of Linguistics, which is part of the Slovak Academy of Sciences. In practice, the Ministry of Culture publishes a document that specifies authoritative reference books for standard Slovak usage, which is called the codification handbook (kodifika?ná príru?ka). The current regulations were published on 15 March 2021. There are four such publications:

• 'Pravidlá slovenského pravopisu', 2013; (orthographic rules)
• 'Krátky slovník slovenského jazyka', 2020; (dictionary)
• 'Pravidlá slovenskej vyslovnosti', 2009; (pronunciation)
• 'Morfológia slovenského jazyka', 1966; (morphology)

Slovak speakers are also found in the Slovak diaspora in the United States, the Czech Republic, Argentina, Serbia, Ireland, Romania, Poland, Canada, Hungary, Germany, Croatia, Israel, the United Kingdom, Australia, Austria, Ukraine, Norway, and other countries to a lesser extent.

Slovak language is one of the official languages of Autonomous Province of Vojvodina.

Official usage of Slovak in Vojvodina, Serbia

Slovak language high schools abroad

• Budapest, 'Szlovák Tanítási Nyelv? óvoda, általános Iskola, Gimnázium és Kollégium'
• Békéscsaba, 'Szlovák Gimnázium, általános Iskola, óvoda és Kollégium'
• Ba?ki Petrovac, 'Ján Kollár Gymnasium and Students' Home'
• Kova?ica, 'Gimnazija Mihailo Pupin'
• N?dlac, 'Liceul Teoretic Jozef Gregor Tajovsky'

Dialects

Slovak dialects

Linguistic structure of Slovakia in 2021

There are many Slovak dialects, which are divided into the following four basic groups:

• Western Slovak dialects (Tren?ín, Trnava, Nitra, Záhorie)
• Central Slovak dialects (in Liptov, Orava, Turiec, Tekov, Hont, Novohrad, Gemer and around Zvolen.)
• Eastern Slovak dialects (in Spi?, ?ari?, Zemplín and Abov)
• Lowland (dolnozemské) Slovak dialects (outside Slovakia in the Pannonian Plain in Serbian Vojvodina, and in southeastern Hungary, western Romania, and the Croatian part of Syrmia)

The fourth group of dialects is often not considered a separate group, but a subgroup of Central and Western Slovak dialects (see e.g. ?tolc, 1968), but it is currently undergoing changes due to contact with surrounding languages (Serbo-Croatian, Romanian, and Hungarian) and long-time geographical separation from Slovakia (see the studies in Zborník Spolku vojvodinskych slovakistov, e.g. Dudok, 1993).

The dialect groups differ mostly in phonology, vocabulary, and tonal inflection. Syntactic differences are minor. Central Slovak forms the basis of the present-day standard language. Not all dialects are fully mutually intelligible. It may be difficult for an inhabitant of the western Slovakia to understand a dialect from eastern Slovakia and the other way around.

The dialects are fragmented geographically, separated by numerous mountain ranges. The first three groups already existed in the 10th century. All of them are spoken by the Slovaks outside Slovakia, and central and western dialects form the basis of the lowland dialects (see above).

The western dialects contain features common with the Moravian dialects in the Czech Republic, the southern central dialects contain a few features common with South Slavic languages, and the eastern dialects a few features common with Polish and the East Slavonic languages (cf. ?tolc, 1994). Lowland dialects share some words and areal features with the languages surrounding them (Serbo-Croatian, Hungarian, and Romanian).

Phonology

Main article: Slovak phonology

Slovak contains 15 vowel phonemes (11 monophthongs and four diphthongs) and 29 consonants.

Slovak vowel phonemes

	Front		Back
	short	long	short	long
Close	i	i?	u	u?
Mid	e	e?	?	(??)
Open	(?)		a	a?
Diphthongs	(?u)   ?e   ??   ??

The phoneme /?/ is marginal and often merges with /e/; the two are normally only distinguished in higher registers.

Vowel length is phonemic in Slovak and both short and long vowels have the same quality. In addition, Slovak, unlike Czech, employs a "rhythmic law" which forbids two long vowels from following one another within the same word. In such cases the second vowel is shortened. For example, adding the locative plural ending -ách to the root vín- creates vínach, not *vínách. This law also applies to diphthongs; for example, the adjective meaning "white" is biely, not *biely (compare Czech bíly).

Slovak consonant phonemes

			Labial	Alveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal			m	n		?
Plosive		voiceless	p	t		c	k
		voiced	b	d		?	ɡ
Affricate		voiceless		ts	t?
		voiced		dz	d?
Fricative		voiceless	f	s	?		x
		voiced		z	?			?
Approximant	plain		v			j
	lateral	short		l		?
		geminated		l?
Trill		short		r
		geminated		r?

Slovak has final devoicing; when a voiced consonant (b, d, ?, g, dz, d?, z, ?, h) is at the end of a word before a pause, it is devoiced to its voiceless counterpart (p, t, ?, k, c, ?, s, ?, ch, respectively). For example, pohyb is pronounced /p??ip/ and prípad is pronounced /pri?pat/.

Consonant clusters containing both voiced and voiceless elements are entirely voiced if the last consonant is a voiced one, or voiceless if the last consonant is voiceless. For example, otázka is pronounced /?ta?ska/ and vzchopi? sa is pronounced /fsx?pits?a/. This rule applies also over the word boundary. For example, prís? domov [pri?z? d?m?w] (to come home) and viac jah?d [???dz ja???t] (more strawberries). The voiced counterpart of "ch" /x/ is [?], and the unvoiced counterpart of "h" /?/ is /x/.

Orthography

Main articles: Slovak orthography and Slovak braille

Slovak uses the Latin script (and formerly the Cyrillic script) with small modifications that include the four diacritics (ˇ, ′, ¨, ?) placed above certain letters (a-á,?; c-?; d-?; dz-d?; e-é; i-í; l-?,?; n-ň; o-ó,?; r-?; s-?; t-?; u-ú; y-y; z-?)

• A a [a]
• á á [a?]
• ? ? [???~?]
• B b [b]
• C c [ts]
• ? ? [t?]
• D d [d]
• ? ? [?]
• Dz dz [dz]
• D? d? [d?]
• E e [?]
• é é [??]
• F f [f]
• G g [ɡ]
• H h [?]
• Ch ch [x]
• I i [i]
• í í [i?]
• J j [j]
• K k [k]
• L l [l]
• ? ? [?]
• ? ? [l?]
• M m [m]
• N n [n]
• ? ň [?]
• O o [?]
• ó ó [??]
• ? ? [???]
• P p [p]
• Q q [k?]
• R r [r]
• ? ? [r??]
• S s [s]
• ? ? [?]
• T t [t]
• ? ? [c]
• U u [u]
• ú ú [u?]
• V v [v~?]
• W w [v~?]
• X x [ks]
• Y y [i]
• Y y [i?]
• Z z [z]
• ? ? [?]

Italic letters (Q and W) are used in loanwords and foreign names.

The primary principle of Slovak spelling is the phonemic principle. The secondary principle is the morphological principle: forms derived from the same stem are written in the same way even if they are pronounced differently. An example of this principle is the assimilation rule (see below). The tertiary principle is the etymological principle, which can be seen in the use of i after certain consonants and of y after other consonants, although both i and y are usually pronounced the same way.

Finally, the rarely applied grammatical principle occurs when, for example, the basic singular form and plural form of masculine adjectives are written differently with no difference in pronunciation (e.g. pekny = nice – singular versus pekní = nice – plural). Such spellings are most often remnants of differences in pronunciation that were present in Proto-Slavic (in Polish, where the vowel merger did not occur, pi?kny and pi?kni and in Czech pěkny and pěkní are pronounced differently).

Most loanwords from foreign languages are respelt using Slovak principles either immediately or later. For example, "weekend" is spelled víkend, "software" – softvér, "gay" – gej (both not exclusively), and "quality" is spelled kvalita. Personal and geographical names from other languages using Latin alphabets keep their original spelling unless a fully Slovak form of the name exists (e.g. Londyn for "London").

Slovak features some heterophonic homographs (words with identical spelling but different pronunciation and meaning), the most common examples being krásne /?kra?sn?/ (beautiful) versus krásne /?kra?s??/ (beautifully).

Grammar

Syntax

The main features of Slovak syntax are as follows:

• The verb (predicate) agrees in person and number with its subject.

Some examples include the following:

Spevá?ka spieva. (The+singer+feminine suffix ?ka is+singing.)

(Spevá?k-a spieva-?, where -? is (the empty) third-person-singular ending)

Spevá?ky spievajú. (Singer+feminine suffix ?ka+plural suffix y are+singing.)

(Spevá?k-y spieva-j-ú; -ú is a third-person-plural ending, and /j/ is a hiatus sound)

My spevá?ky spievame. (We the+singer+feminine suffix ?ka+plural suffix y are+singing.)

(My spevá?k-y spieva-me, where -me is the first-person-plural ending)

and so forth.

• Adjectives, pronouns and numerals agree in person, gender and case with the noun to which they refer.
• Adjectives precede their noun. Botanic or zoological terms are exceptions (e.g. ma?ka divá, literally "cat wild", Felis silvestris) as is the naming of Holy Spirit (Duch Sv?ty) in a majority of churches.

Word order in Slovak is relatively free, since strong inflection enables the identification of grammatical roles (subject, object, predicate, etc.) regardless of word placement. This relatively free word order allows the use of word order to convey topic and emphasis.

Some examples are as follows:

Ten ve?ky mu? tam dnes otvára obchod. = That big man is opening a store there today. (ten = that; ve?ky = big; mu? = man; tam = there; dnes = today; otvára = opens; obchod = store) – The word order does not emphasize any specific detail, just general information.

Ten ve?ky mu? dnes otvára obchod tam. = That big man is today opening a store there. – This word order emphasizes the place (tam = there).

Dnes tam otvára obchod ten ve?ky mu?. = Today over there a store is being opened by that big man. – This word order focuses on the person who is opening the store (ten = that; ve?ky = big; mu? = man).

Obchod tam dnes otvára ten ve?ky mu?. = The store over there is today being opened by that big man. – Depending on the intonation the focus can be either on the store itself or on the person.

The unmarked order is subject–verb–object. Variation in word order is generally possible, but word order is not completely free. In the above example, the noun phrase ten ve?ky mu? cannot be split up, so that the following combinations are not possible:

Ten otvára ve?ky mu? tam dnes obchod.

Obchod mu? tam ten ve?ky dnes otvára. ...

And the following sentence is stylistically infelicitous:

Obchod ten ve?ky mu? dnes tam otvára. (Only possible in a poem or other forms of artistic style.)

The regular variants are as follows:

Ten ve?ky mu? tam dnes otvára obchod.

Ten ve?ky mu? tam otvára dnes obchod.

Obchod tam dnes otvára ten ve?ky mu?.

Obchod tam otvára dnes ten ve?ky mu?.

Dnes tam obchod otvára ten ve?ky mu?.

Dnes tam ten ve?ky mu? otvára obchod.

Morphology

Articles

Slovak, like every major Slavic language other than Bulgarian and Macedonian, does not have articles. The demonstrative pronoun in masculine form ten (that one) or tá in feminine and to in neuter respectively, may be used in front of the noun in situations where definiteness must be made explicit.

Nouns, adjectives, pronouns

Main article: Slovak declension

Slovak nouns are inflected for case and number. There are six cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, locative, and instrumental. The vocative is purely optional and most of the time unmarked. It is used mainly in spoken language and in some fixed expressions: mama mum (nominative) vs. mami mum! (vocative), tato, oco dad (N) vs. tati, oci dad! (V), pán Mr., sir vs. pane sir (when addressing someone e.g. in the street). There are two numbers: singular and plural. Nouns have inherent gender. There are three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Adjectives and pronouns must agree with nouns in case, number, and gender.

Numerals

The numerals 0–10 have unique forms, with numerals 1–4 requiring specific gendered representations. Numerals 11–19 are formed by adding nás? to the end of each numeral. The suffix dsa? is used to create numerals 20, 30 and 40; for numerals 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90, desiat is used. Compound numerals (21, 1054) are combinations of these words formed in the same order as their mathematical symbol is written (e.g. 21 = dvadsa?jeden, literally "twenty-one").

The numerals are as follows:

1–10		11–20		10–100
1	jeden (number, masculine), jedno (neuter), jedna) (feminine)	11	jedenás?	10	desa?
2	dva (number, masculine inanimate), dve (neuter, feminine), dvaja (masculine animate)	12	dvanás?	20	dvadsa?
3	tri (number, neuter, masculine inanimate, feminine), traja (masculine animate)	13	trinás?	30	tridsa?
4	?tyri (number, neuter, masculine inanimate, feminine), ?tyria (masculine animate)	14	?trnás?	40	?tyridsa?
5	p??	15	p?tnás?	50	p??desiat
6	?es?	16	?estnás?	60	?es?desiat
7	sedem	17	sedemnás?	70	sedemdesiat
8	osem	18	osemnás?	80	osemdesiat
9	dev??	19	dev?tnás?	90	dev??desiat
10	desa?	20	dvadsa?	100	sto

Some higher numbers: (200) dvesto, (300) tristo, (900) dev??sto, (1,000) tisíc, (1,100) tisícsto, (2,000) dvetisíc, (100,000) stotisíc, (200,000) dvestotisíc, (1,000,000) milión, (1,000,000,000) miliarda.

Counted nouns have two forms. The most common form is the plural genitive (e.g. p?? domov = five houses or stodva ?ien = one hundred two women), while the plural form of the noun when counting the amounts of 2–4, etc., is usually the nominative form without counting (e.g. dva domy = two houses or dve ?eny = two women) but gender rules do apply in many cases.

Verbs

Verbs have three major conjugations. Three persons and two numbers (singular and plural) are distinguished. Subject personal pronouns are omitted unless they are emphatic.

• Some imperfective verbs are created from the stems of perfective verbs to denote repeated or habitual actions. These are considered separate lexemes. One example is as follows: to hide (perfective) = skry?, to hide (habitual) = skryva?.
• Historically, two past tense forms were utilized. Both are formed analytically. The second of these, equivalent to the pluperfect, is not widely used in the modern language, being rather considered archaic. Examples for two related verbs are as follows:

skry?: skryl som (I hid / I have hidden); bol som skryl (I had hidden)

skryva?: skryval som; bol som skryval.

• One future tense exists. For imperfective verbs, it is formed analytically; for perfective verbs, it is identical to the present tense. Some examples are as follows:

skry?: skryjem

skryva?: budem skryva?

• Two conditional forms exist. Both are formed analytically from the past tense:

skry?: skryl by som (I would hide), bol by som skryl (I would have hidden)

skryva?: skryval by som; bol by som skryval

• The passive voice is formed either as in English (copula + passive participle) or using the reflexive pronoun 'sa':

skry?: je skryty; sa skryje

skryva?: je skryvany; sa skryva

• The passive participle (= ~ed (one), the "third form") is formed using the suffixes -ny / -ty / -eny:

skry?: skryty

skryva?: skryvany

• The active present participle (= ~ing (one)) is formed using the suffixes -úci / -iaci / -aci

skry?: skryjúci

skryva?: skryvajúci

• The transgressive (=(while/by) ...ing) is formed using the suffixes -úc / -uc / -iac/-ac.

skry?: skryjúc (by hiding (perfective))

skryva?: skryvajúc ((while/during) hiding)

• The active past participle (= ~ing (in the past)) was formerly formed using the suffix -v?í, but is no longer used.
• The gerund (= the (process of) ...ing) is formed using the suffix -ie:

skry?: skrytie

skryva?: skryvanie

Conjugations

Several conjugation paradigms exist as follows:

á-type verbs (Class I)

vola?, to call	Singular	Plural	Past tense (masculine – feminine – neuter)
1st person	volám	voláme	volal – volala – volalo
2nd person	volá?	voláte
3rd person	volá	volajú

á-type verbs (Class I) + rhythmical rule

byva?, to live, dwell, but not exist	Singular	Plural	Past tense
1st person	byvam	byvame	byval – byvala – byvalo
2nd person	byva?	byvate
3rd person	byva	byvajú

á-type verbs (Class I) (soft stem)

vraca?, to return or (mostly in slang) to vomit	Singular	Plural	Past tense
1st person	vraciam	vraciame	vracal – vracala – vracalo
2nd person	vracia?	vraciate
3rd person	vracia	vracajú

í-type verbs (Class V)

robi?, to do, work	Singular	Plural	Past tense
1st person	robím	robíme	robil – robila – robilo
2nd person	robí?	robíte
3rd person	robí	robia

í-type verbs (Class V) + rhythmical rule

vráti?, to return	Singular	Plural	Past tense
1st person	vrátim	vrátime	vrátil – vrátila – vrátilo
2nd person	vráti?	vrátite
3rd person	vráti	vrátia

e-type verbs (Class IV) (-ova?)

kupova?, to buy	Singular	Plural	Past tense
1st person	kupujem	kupujeme	kupoval – kupovala – kupovalo
2nd person	kupuje?	kupujete
3rd person	kupuje	kupujú

e-type verbs (Class IV) (-nu?, typically preceded by a consonant)

zabudnú?, to forget	Singular	Plural	Past tense
1st person	zabudnem	zabudneme	zabudol – zabudla – zabudlo
2nd person	zabudne?	zabudnete
3rd person	zabudne	zabudnú

ie-type verbs (Class V)

vidie?, to see	Singular	Plural	Past tense
1st person	vidím	vidíme	videl – videla – videlo
2nd person	vidí?	vidíte
3rd person	vidí	vidia

ie-type verbs (Class III) (-nu?, typically preceded by a vowel)

minú?, to spend, miss	Singular	Plural	Past tense
1st person	miniem	minieme	minul – minula – minulo
2nd person	minie?	miniete
3rd person	minie	minú

ie-type verbs (Class III) (-c?, -s?, -z?)

nies?, to carry	Singular	Plural	Past tense
1st person	nesiem	nesieme	niesol – niesla – nieslo
2nd person	nesie?	nesiete
3rd person	nesie	nesú

ie-type verbs (Class II) (-nie?)

stu?nie?, to carry (be fat)	Singular	Plural	Past tense
1st person	stu?niem	stu?nieme	stu?nel – stu?nela – stu?nelo
2nd person	stu?nie?	stu?niete
3rd person	stu?nie	stu?nejú

Irregular verbs

	by?, to be	jes?, to eat	vedie?, to know
1st singular	som	jem	viem
2nd singular	si	je?	vie?
3rd singular	je	je	vie
1st plural	sme	jeme	vieme
2nd plural	ste	jete	viete
3rd plural	sú	jedia	vedia
Past tense	bol, bola, bolo	jedol, jedla, jedlo	vedel, vedela, vedelo

Adverbs

Adverbs are formed by replacing the adjectival ending with the ending -o or -e / -y. Sometimes both -o and -e are possible. Examples include the following:

vysoky (high) – vysoko (highly)

pekny (nice) – pekne (nicely)

priate?sky (friendly) – priate?sky (in a friendly manner)

rychly (fast) – rychlo (quickly)

The comparative of adverbs is formed by replacing the adjectival ending with a comparative/superlative ending -(ej)?í or -(ej)?ie, whence the superlative is formed with the prefix naj-. Examples include the following:

rychly (fast) – rychlej?í (faster) – najrychlej?í (fastest): rychlo (quickly) – rychlej?ie (more quickly) – najrychlej?ie (most quickly)

Prepositions

Each preposition is associated with one or more grammatical cases. The noun governed by a preposition must agree with the preposition in the given context. The preposition od always calls for the genitive case, but some prepositions such as po can call for different cases depending on the intended sense of the preposition.

from friends = od priate?ov (genitive case of priatelia)

around the square = po námestí (locative case of námestie)

up to the square = po námestie (accusative case of námestie)

Vocabulary

Slovak is a descendant of Proto-Slavic, itself a descendant of Proto-Indo-European. It is closely related to the other West Slavic languages, primarily to Czech and Polish. Czech also influenced the language in its later development. The highest number of borrowings in the old Slovak vocabulary come from Latin, German, Czech, Hungarian, Polish and Greek (in that order). Recently, it is also influenced by English.

Czech

Although most dialects of Czech and Slovak are mutually intelligible (see Comparison of Slovak and Czech), eastern Slovak dialects are less intelligible to speakers of Czech and closer to Polish and East Slavic, and contact between speakers of Czech and speakers of the eastern dialects is limited.

Since the dissolution of Czechoslovakia it has been permitted to use Czech in TV broadcasting and during court proceedings (Administration Procedure Act 99/1963 Zb.). From 1999 to August 2009, the Minority Language Act 184/1999 Z.z., in its section (§) 6, contained the variously interpreted unclear provision saying that "When applying this act, it holds that the use of the Czech language fulfills the requirement of fundamental intelligibility with the state language"; the state language is Slovak and the Minority Language Act basically refers to municipalities with more than 20% ethnic minority population (no such Czech municipalities are found in Slovakia). Since 1 September 2009 (due to an amendment to the State Language Act 270/1995 Z.z.) a language "fundamentally intelligible with the state language" (i.e. the Czech language) may be used in contact with state offices and bodies by its native speakers, and documents written in it and issued by bodies in the Czech Republic are officially accepted. Regardless of its official status, Czech is used commonly both in Slovak mass media and in daily communication by Czech natives as an equal language.

Czech and Slovak have a long history of interaction and mutual influence well before the creation of Czechoslovakia in 1918, a state which existed until 1993. Literary Slovak shares significant orthographic features with Czech, as well as technical and professional terminology dating from the Czechoslovak period, but phonetic, grammatical, and vocabulary differences do exist.

Other Slavic languages

Slavic language varieties are relatively closely related, and have had a large degree of mutual influence, due to the complicated ethnopolitical history of their historic ranges. This is reflected in the many features Slovak shares with neighboring language varieties. Standard Slovak shares high degrees of mutual intelligibility with many Slavic varieties. Despite this closeness to other Slavic varieties, significant variation exists among Slovak dialects. In particular, eastern varieties differ significantly from the standard language, which is based on central and western varieties.

Eastern Slovak dialects have the greatest degree of mutual intelligibility with Polish of all the Slovak dialects, followed by Rusyn, but both Eastern Slovak and Rusyn lack familiar technical terminology and upper register expressions. Polish and Sorbian also differ quite considerably from Czech and Slovak in upper registers, but non-technical and lower register speech is readily intelligible. Some mutual intelligibility occurs with spoken Rusyn, Ukrainian, and even Russian (in this order), as their orthographies are based on the Cyrillic script.

English	Slovak	Czech	Polish	Rusyn	Ukrainian	Belarusian	Serbo-Croatian	Bulgarian	Slovenian
to buy	kupova?	kupovat	kupowa?	куповати (kupovaty)	купувати (kupuvaty)	купляць (kupla?)	kupovati	купува (kupuva)	kupovati
Welcome	Vitajte	Vítejte	Witajcie	В?тайте (vitajte)	В?таю (vitaju)	В?таю (vitaju)	Dobrodo?li	добре дошли (dobre do?li)	Dobrodo?li
morning	ráno	ráno/jitro	rano/ranek	рано (rano)	рано/ранок (rano/ranok)	рана/ранак (rana/ranak)	jutro	утро (utro)	jutro
Thank you	?akujem	Děkuji	Dzi?kuj?	Дякую (diakuju)	Дякую (diakuju)	Дзякуй (dziakuj)	Hvala	благодаря (blagodarja)	Hvala
How are you?	Ako sa má??	Jak se má??	Jak si? masz? (colloquially "jak leci?")	Як ся ма?ш/маш? (jak sia maje?/ma??)	Як справи? (jak spravy?)	Як справы? (jak spravy?)	Kako si?	Как си? (Kak si?)	Kako se ima??/Kako si?
					Як ся ма?ш? (jak sia maje??)	Як маесься? (jak maje?sia?)

Latin

• baku?a: baculum (stick)
• klá?tor: claustrum (monastery)
• kostol: castellum (church)
• ko?e?a: casula (shirt)
• machu?a: macula (blot, stain)
• ?kola: scola (school)
• skriňa: skrinium (cupboard)
• titul: titulus (title)

English

Sports:

• ?portova?: to do sports
• ?port: sport
• futbal: football (Association football; it can also mean American football, especially when specified as americky futbal)
• ofsajd: offside
• aut: out (football)
• hokej: hockey
• body?ek: body check (hockey)

Food:

• hemendex: ham & eggs
• ke?up: ketchup

Clothing:

• d?ínsy: jeans
• legíny: leggings
• sveter: sweater
• tenisky: tennis shoes

Exclamations:

• fajn: fine
• super: super
• okej: OK

German

Nouns:

• brak: Brack (rubbish)
• cech: Zeche (guild)
• cie?: Ziel (goal/target)
• cín: Zinn (tin)
• deka: Decke (blanket)
• dr?t: Draht (wire)
• erb: erben (coat-of-arms, from "to inherit")
• falo?: Falschheit (falsity)
• farba: Farbe (color)
• fa?iangy: Fasching (carnival)
• fialka: Veilchen (viola)
• f?a?a: Flasche (bottle)
• fúra: Fuhre (load)
• gróf: Graf (count)
• hák: Haken (hook)
• helma: Helm (helmet)
• hoblík: Hobel (hand plane)
• jarmok: Jahrmarkt (funfair)
• kned?a: Kn?del (dumpling)
• minca: Münze (coin)
• ortie?: Urteil (verdict)
• pan?ucha: Bundschuh (stocking)
• plech: Blech (sheet metal)
• regál: Regal (shelf)
• ruksak: Rucksack (backpack)
• rúra: Rohr (pipe)
• rytier: Ritter (knight)
• ?achta: Schacht (mine shaft)
• ?inde?: Schindel (roof shingle)
• ?núra: Schnur (cord)
• ta?ka: Tasche (purse)
• téma: Thema (topic)
• vaňa: Badewanne (bathtub)
• Vianoce: Weihnachten (Christmas)
• vlo?ka: Flocke (flake)
• ?umpa: Sumpf (cesspit)

Verbs:

• ?tudova?: studieren (to study (as in, to major in))
• vin?ova?: wünschen (to wish)
  • Note: colloquially, the standard term in Slovak is ?ela?

Greetings:

Servus is commonly used as a greeting or upon parting in Slovak-speaking regions and some German-speaking regions, particularly Austria. Papa is also commonly used upon parting in these regions. Both servus and papa are used in colloquial, informal conversation.

Hungarian

Hungarians and Slovaks have had language interaction ever since the settlement of Hungarians in the Carpathian area. Hungarians also adopted many words from various Slavic languages related to agriculture and administration, and a number of Hungarian loanwords are found in Slovak. Some examples are as follows:

• "wicker whip": Slovak korbá? (the standard name for "whip" is bi? and korbá?, itself originating from Turkish k?rba?, usually means only one particular type of it—the "wicker whip") – Hungarian korbács;
• "dragon/kite": Slovak ?arkan (rather rare, drak is far more common in this meaning; ?arkan often means only "kite", especially a small one that is flown for fun and this term is far more common than drak in this meaning; for the "dragon kite", the term drak is still used almost exclusively) – Hungarian sárkány.
• "rumour": Slovak chyr, Hungarian hír;
• "camel": Slovak ?ava, Hungarian teve;
• "ditch": Slovak jarok, Hungarian árok;
• "glass": Slovak pohár, Hungarian pohár;

Sample text

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Slovak (latin script):

V?etci ?udia sa rodia slobodní a rovní v d?stojnosti aj právach. Sú obdarení rozumom a svedomím a majú sa k sebe správa? v duchu bratstva.

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

See also

• Slovak orthography
• Slovak phonology
• Slovak declension
• List of language regulators for a list of languages with a regulated standard variety

Bibliography

• Dudok, D. (1993) Vznik a charakter slovenskych náre?í v juhoslovanskej Vojvodine [The emergence and character of the Slovak dialects in Yugoslav Vojvodina]. Zborník spolku vojvodinskych slovakistov 15. Novy Sad: Spolok vojvodinskych slovakistov, pp. 19–29.
• Hanulíková, Adriana; Hamann, Silke (2010), "Slovak" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (3): 373–378, doi:10.1017/S0025100310000162
• Krá?, ábel (1988), Pravidlá slovenskej vyslovnosti, Bratislava: Slovenské pedagogické nakladate?stvo
• Musilová, K. and Sokolová, M. (2004) Funk?nost ?esko-slovenskych kontaktovych jev? v sou?asnosti [The functionality of Czech-Slovak contact phenomena in the present-time]. In Fiala, J. and Machala, L. (eds.) Studia Moravica I (AUPO, Facultas Philosophica Moravica 1). Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci, pp. 133–146.
• Nábělková, M. (2003) Sú?asné kontexty slovensko-?eskej a ?esko-slovenskej medzijazykovosti [Contemporary contexts of the Slovak-Czech and Czech-Slovak interlinguality]. In Pospí?il, I. – Zelenka, M. (eds.) ?esko-slovenské vztahy v slovanskych a st?edoevropskych souvislostech (meziliterárnost a areál). Brno: úS FF MU, pp. 89–122.
• Nábělková, M. (2006) V ?om bli??ie, v ?om ?alej... Spisovná sloven?ina vo vz?ahu k spisovnej ?e?tine a k obecnej ?e?tine [In what closer, in what further... Standard Slovak in relation to Standard Czech and Common Czech]. In Gladkova, H. and Cvr?ek, V. (eds.) Sociální aspekty spisovnych jazyk? slovanskych. Praha: Euroslavica, pp. 93–106.
• Nábělková, M. (2007) Closely related languages in contact: Czech, Slovak, "Czechoslovak". International Journal of the Sociology of Language 183, pp. 53–73.
• Nábělková, M. (2008) Sloven?ina a ?e?tina v kontakte: Pokra?ovanie príbehu. [Slovak and Czech in Contact: Continuation of the Story]. Bratislava/Praha: Veda/Filozofická fakulta Univerzity Karlovy. 364 pp., ISBN 978-80-224-1060-1
• Pavlík, Radoslav (2004), Bosák, Ján; Petrufová, Magdaléna (eds.), "Slovenské hlásky a medzinárodná fonetická abeceda" [Slovak Speech Sounds and the International Phonetic Alphabet] (PDF), Jazykovedny ?asopis [The Linguistic Journal] (in Slovak) (55/2), Bratislava: Slovak Academic Press, spol. s r. o.: 87–109, ISSN 0021-5597
• Sloboda, M. (2004) Slovensko-?eská (semi)komunikace a vzájemná (ne)srozumitelnost [Slovak-Czech (semi)communication and the mutual (un)intelligibility]. ?e?tina doma a ve světě XII, No. 3–4, pp. 208–220.
• Sokolová, M. (1995) ?eské kontaktové javy v sloven?ine [Czech contact phenomena in Slovak]. In Ondrejovi?, S. and ?imková, M. (eds.) Sociolingvistické aspekty vyskumu sú?asnej sloven?iny (Sociolinguistica Slovaca 1). Bratislava: Veda, pp. 188–206.
• ?tolc, Jozef (1968) Re? Slovákov v Juhoslávii I.: Zvuková a gramatická stavba [The speech of the Slovaks in Yugoslavia: phonological and grammatical structure]. Bratislava: Vydavate?stvo Slovenskej akadémie vied.
• ?tolc, Jozef (1994) Slovenská dialektológia [Slovak dialectology]. Ed. I. Ripka. Bratislava: Veda.

Further reading

• Mistrík, Jozef (1988) [First published 1982], A Grammar of Contemporary Slovak (2nd ed.), Bratislava: Slovenské pedagogické nakladate?stvo
• Pauliny, Eugen; Ru??i?ka, Jozef; ?tolc, Jozef (1968), Slovenská gramatika, Slovenské pedagogické nakladate?stvo
• Short, David (2002), "Slovak", in Comrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville G. (eds.), The Slavonic Languages, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 533–592, ISBN 9780415280785

External links

• ?. ?túr Institute of Linguistics – Slovak Academy of Sciences
• Slovak National Corpus
• Slovak Monolingual Dictionaries
• Slovake.eu – Online Language Course
• Online Translation Dictionaries
• E-Slovak – Online Language Course
• Slovak Language Lessons for Beginners